ABSTRACT
Ceiba pentandra (totoro) is a plant that is very popular in African Traditional medicine and it belongs to the family of Bombacaceae. The matured tree is as much as 56 m high, with long cylindrical and huge buttresses to 8 m high and wide spreading. It is the largest tree of the West African region and it occurs throughout the continent.
Qualitative analysis indicated that the leaves contained alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, Saponin, glycoside, tannin. Quantitative analysis showed that Alkaloids (3.4%), Saponins (6.6%), Flavonoids (0.21mg/ml), Tannins (0.85%), Phenol (0.013mg/ml). It was observed that Saponin and Alkaloids have the highest level of presence when compared to other constituents present. Phenol and Flavonoid also have the lowest level of concentration in hexanolic extract of Ceiba pentandra.
INTRODUCTION
Plants constitute an indispensable constituent of the human diet in Africa generally and West Africa in particular. Plants are important protective food, and they are highly beneficial for the maintenance of health and prevention of diseases (Chima and Igyor, 2007).
Plants are known to synthesize a wide range of chemical substances, many of which have been and can be of tremendous value in the treatment and prevention of diseases. Man has depended on plants and plant extracts as a source of medicine, food, shelter and clothing, since creation (Tor- Anyiin et al., 2006). The efficacy of most plants in treatment of ailments has encouraged research into these areas and today plants alone offer a host of analgesics, antibiotics, heart drugs, enzymes, hormones, diuretics, anti-parasitic compounds, ulcer treatments, dentifrices, laxatives, dysentery treatments, and anti- coagulants among others (Barker, 1978).
Plants contain valuable food ingredients which can be utilized to build up and repair the body (Tolonen, 1990). The use of plant extracts as an alternative form of medicinal treatment to orthodox medicine has been
enjoying great popularity since the late 1990s. Despite the nutritional qualities and the medicinal properties of these plants, consumers need to take caution because plants generally have been reported to have the potential to absorb metals from the soil as well as from deposits on parts exposed to the air from polluted environments (Gabriel et al., 2007). Vegetable plants are generally acceptable as good source of nutrients and supplements for staple food in a World faced with the problem of food scarcity. They are known to be excellent source of nutrients such as mineral and vitamins (Obiajunwa et al., 2005). Nutritional experts have recognized and emphasized the important roles of mineral and trace elements to the human health and well being (Tolonen, 1990). It is estimated that 70 biological trace elements are needed by all living things for the normal function of their metabolism, reproductive and immune system (Obiajunwa et al., 2005). The need to meet nutritional requirements through adequate food supply has been a major concern over the years.
Ceiba pentandra (totoro) is a plant that is very popular in African Traditional medicine and it belongs to the family of Bombacaceae. The matured tree is as much as 56 m high, with long cylindrical and huge buttresses to 8 m high and wide spreading. It is the largest tree of the West African region and it occurs throughout the continent. It is a multipurpose plant that is well known in practice by the farmers of Cambodia and it is traditionally used for goat production (Theng et al., 2003b). Various part of the plant are essentially, used for various illnesses as laxative, foliage for goat, trunk for domestic plank and wood pulp for paper (Daziel and Hutchchinson, 1956). The bark contains a blackish mucilaginous gum which swells in water and resembles trasgacanth; it is an astringent and it is used in India and Malaysia for bowel-complaint and in West Africa for diarrhoea (Burkill, 1985). It is also used as skin medicine for skin-infection, and for tooth-troubles in Senegal (Bouquet and Debray, 1974).
Different parts of the plant are used in the treatment of fever, cough, gastro-intestinal complaints, itching, syphilitic ulcer, inflammation of the eyes, diarrhea, colic, intestinal worms, Ophtalmia and for application to wounds (Bouquet and Debray, 1974). The plant is known to have other various therapeutic applications depending on the areas and tradition (Gill, 1992; Alinnor, 2007).These applications include anthelminthic activity, antidote activity, activity against chickenpox, Vertigo, Syncope, conjunctivitis and venereal diseases (Forest et al., 1989).
In Nigeria, the leaves are cooked in form of slurry sauce, comparable to okra and it is commonly seen in the South-Eastern part of the country where it is called Akpu-ota. The leaves are used as an alternative laxative and the infusion is given as a cure for colic in man and in livestock (Burkill, 2000). In Kano Nigeria, it is used for curative dressing of sores, in Guinea is used for maturate, and in Congo, it is used as whitlows (Daziel and Hutchechinson, 1956). The flower is used in Guinea, for gonorrhea treatments. The young leaves are sometimes cooked and eaten in most countries in West Africa as a soup herb (Burkill, 2005). The mature leaves contain mucilage which can be obtained by boiling and it is used to remove foreign bodies from the eye in Ivory Coast, as emollient and sedative in Garbon (Burkill, 2005). In Senegal, freshly pounded leaves are steeped in water, which is taken for general fatigue and lumbago. In many countries in Africa, the bark and the stem are taken as remedies for diarrhoea, localized oedemas, wash sores, furuncles leprous macules, stomach complaints, hernia, blennorrhoea, heart-trouble, asthma, gargles for gingivitis, aphtes and sometimes toothache (Burkill, 1985).
Aims of the Study
This research work is aimed at investigating the phytochemical constituents present in hexanolic extract of Ceiba pentandra leaves.
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
In previous studies, the moisture content of C. pentandra was very high (FAO, 1968). However, the high moisture content may underscore its high perishability and susceptibility to microbial infection (Tressler et al., 1980). The high moisture content aids food digestion. The young leaf of C. pentandra is extremely high in fiber content as revealed in a previous study (Oladejo, 2009).
Studies have shown that soluble dietary fibers have health-promoting properties since they have been shown to in lower plasma and liver chlolesterol concentration (Behall, 1986). They are useful for diarrhea treatment and detoxification of poisonous metals (Cohn and Cohn, 1996). The high value of carbohydrate and protein suggest the nutritional quality of the C. pentandra leaf and this may be a veritable tool been used for body nourishment. The moderately high value of the ash content in the young leaf of C. pentandra is an indicator of its mineral value constituents.
In a recent study, results obtained for vitamin A, C and E suggested that the plant may be of help in solving or reducing the prevailing micronutrient deficiency (Antia et al., 2006). Tocopherol (vitamin E), ascorbic acid and carotenoids (pre-cursor of vitamin A) are anti-oxidants which have been associated with prevention of nutritional related diseases such as cancer, diabetes mellitus, coronary heart diseases and obesity (McDougall et al., 1996; Larrauri et al., 1996). Ascorbic acid is essential for the healthy formation of bones and teeth. It is a powerful anti-oxidant (Szeto et al., 2002) whose deficiency results in scurvy with swelling of the joints and gums, loosening of the teeth and hemorrhage of the skin and mucous membrane. Evidence of vitamin C playing a key role in decreasing the incidence of degenerative diseases is considered to be strong (Halliwell, 1996). Low ascorbic levels have been associated with fatigue and increased severity of respiratory tract infections (Johnston et al., 1998), while high intake of vitamin C from food has been shown to raise serum HDL Cholesterol and lower serum triglyceride concentration (Ness et al., 1996), hence this young leaf of C. pentandra have these health promoting potentials.
1.1 Macro and micro elements
Nutritional experts have emphasized the important roles of mineral and trace elements to the human health (Tolonen, 1990). It is estimated that 70 biological trace elements are needed by all living things for their normal metabolic functions, reproductive and immune system (Obiajunwa et al., 2005).
In earlier studies, macro/micro elements found in C. pentandra leaf showed that C. pentandra is rich in essential minerals and trace elements that promote the well being in humans. Iron and copper for example, are essential in blood formation. Copper is also involved in normal carbohydrate and lipid metabolism; zinc on its part is a multifunctional nutrient involved in glucose and lipid metabolism, hormone function and wound healing (Obiajunwa et al., 2005). It is also associated with proper hair growth (Wang et al., 1985).
According to Friday et al., (2011), C. pentandra is a good source of calcium, magnesium, copper, manganese, sodium and potassium. A daily consumption of C. pentandra can add values to recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of mineral elements, thereby improving the health status (Friday et al., 2011).
1.2 Phytochemicals
A recent research by Friday et al., (2011) provided information on the bioactive and anti-nutrient constituent studies of the young leaves of C. pentandra. The bioactive components studied revealed that C. pentandra has substantial amount of phenolic compounds, alkanoid, flavonoid, tannin, saponin, phytate, oxalate, trypsin inhibitor and hemagglutinin. These bioactive compounds (flavonoid, alkaloids, phenolics and saponins) are known to exhibit medicinal and physiological activities (Sofowora, 1993). Flavonoids have been shown to have anti-mutagenic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antiviral, anti-neoplastic, anti-thrombotic and vasodilatory activity (Alan and Miller, 1996). The potent anti-oxidant activity of flavonoids is their ability to scavenge hydroxyl radicals superoxide anions and lipids peroxy radicals which may be the most important functions of flavonoids (Alan and Miller, 1996).
Studies have shown that saponin although non toxic can generate adverse physiological responses in animals that consume them, they exhibit cytotoxic effects and growth inhibition against a variety of cells making them have anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties (Iniaghe, 2009). They show tumor inhibiting activities on animals (Akindahunsi and Salawu, 2005). The presence of saponins from various studies indicate their importance and interest in pharmacy due to their relationship with such compounds such as sex hormones especially in the development of the female contraceptive pill (Edeoga et al., 2006). This may be the reason why the infusion of the leaves of C. pentandra is given to expectant mothers in Guinea to ensure hormonal balance. Saponins are reported to be effective in the treatment of syphilis, rheumatism and certain skin disease: treatment of abscesses and other swellings, ulcer and septic wounds (Chindo et al., 2002) and management of inflammation (Adebgoye et al., 2008). Saponins are responsible for tonic and stimulating activities observed in Chinese and Japanese Medical herbs (Alinnor, 2007). Phenolic compounds are a class of antioxidant agents which act as free radical terminators (Shahidi and Wanasundara, 1992). Polyphenols constitute the main bioactive phytochemicals that have proven effectiveness in the prevention of certain chronic diseases such as coronary heart diseases, cancers and diabetes (Asami et al., 2003). Tannins are fairly frequently encountered in food products of plant vegetable origin such as tea and many fruits. The oxidative and inhibitory activities of tannins have been known for a long time, and this is assumed to be due to the presence of gallics and digallics (Ihekoronye and Ngody, 1985). The results from previous studies on the bioactive constituents in C. pentandra suggest the reason for the usage of the plant to cure many diseases such as colic in man, dressing on sores for maturate tumours, whitlow, inflammatory diseases, cancer, mental illness, fatigue, lumbago, gonorrhea and dysentery (Edeoga et al., 2006).
In a recent study, C. pentandra was discovered to contain anti-nutrients such as cyanogenic glycoside, trypsin inhibitors, hemagglutinin inhibitor, phytate and oxalate. The plant has low content values of the various anti-nutrients determined which implies that the plant leaf is very safe and good for human health (Friday et al., 2011). Sarkiyayi et al. (2009) also reported on the acute and chronic toxicity profile studies of C. pentandra which showed that all the parameters studied (AST, ALT, ALP, serum bilirubin, PCV and creatinine) were within physiological acceptable range, therefore, the plant leaf is relatively safe for herbal oral medication (Sarkiyayi et al., 2009).
Several researchers have reported the medicinal properties of derived compounds from C. pentandra plants. These classes of compounds are known to show curative activities against several strains of bacteria and it is not surprising that these plants extracts are used traditionally by herbalist to cure bacteria related illness. Flavonoids which are part of the phytochemical constituents of Ceiba petandra are known to have hypoglycemic activity used in the treatment of diabetes (Ghamba et al., 2012). They exhibit anti-inflammatory, anti-angionic, anti-allergic effect, analgesic and anti-oxidant properties (Hodek et al., 2002; Harbone and Williams, 2000); enzymes inhibitors, vascular, oestrogenic, cytotoxic antitumor, antispamolytic and antidiarhoetic properties (Harbone and Williams, 2000). Flavonoids are known to exhibit a wide range of biological activities one of which is their ability to scavenge for hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anions radicals, thereby bringing about their health promoting action. The diuretic, antibacterial (Alinnor, 2007; Penecilla and Magno, 2011), antifungal, antiplasmodial and anti-mycobacterial activities (Ogukwe et al., 2004; Yenjai et al., 2004), cytotoxic and antiprotozoal activity (Borges- Argaez et al., 2007) of flavonoids containing plants have been reported. The combination of saponins and steroids is known to show curative activity against several pathogens (Patocka, 2003). Similarly, (Heras et al., 2003) also observed the presence of such constituents, as flavonoids, saponins, and terpenoids (Hassan et al., 2004; Alinnor, 2007). These have exhibited varying antimicrobial activities (Patocka, 2003). Terpenoids are said to have some biological activities in animals including man and they play a meaningful role in human medicine. They have been reported to have a wide spectrum of biological activities including bactericidal, fungicidal, antiviral, cytotoxic, analgesic, anticancer, spermicidal, cardiovascular and antiallergic (Sofowora, 1974). A vast number of terpenoid have been evaluated as potential anti-inflammatory molecules not only in in vivo animal models, but also in well defined ex vivo cultures (Jeeva et al., 2011). The biological activity of the acetone extract of Ceiba petandra can be attributed to the synergistic effect of the combination of flavonoids , steroids, terpenoids and saponins. The synergistic antibacterial effects of flavonoids, saponins, terpenes and steroids have been reported (Tella et al., 2002; Ghamba et al., 2012).