CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
It is the case in recent times in Nigeria that the academic performance of students particularly in biology and chemistry have gone down drastically when compared with the years following the political independence of Nigeria in October 1st 1960. This much has been evidenced by the results year after year turned out by the West African Examination Council (WAEC). This trend did not originate at the level of WAEC, Rather it has been a product of the junior and senior secondary levels. This malady has even gone past the level of secondary school, and has eaten deep into our tertiary institutions, such that Professor Wole Soyinka asserted that the quality graduates produced by our education system are subject to re-examination.
Biology is described as a science of life and plays a very vital role in the life of every human being. It is very vast with many divisions including zoology, botany, ecology, genetics, morphology, anatomy physiology, histology, microbiology biochemistry, evolution and the more advanced cell biology, molecular biology among others. Apart from the inter-relatedness that exist among these branches, biology is closely related with other science subjects like agricultural science, chemistry, geography, mathematics and physics. Little wonder then that biology finds application in many specialised areas like medicine, pharmacy, food production and processing industries, biotechnology, genetic engineering, agriculture and horticulture, environmental protection, tourism industry and so on. Considering biology’s many branches and vast application in every field of human endeavour as enunciated above it importance in a nation’s economy development cannot be over emphasised.
Chemistry has been identified to be one of the important subjects needed for the sustenance and transformation of the national economy, and hence should be accorded adequate attention. Advancement in science and technology has created a greater demand for more people to study chemistry and this is particularly important in the realisation of Nigeria’s vision to become industrialised. Acquisition of appropriate scientific and technological skills is necessary to cope with the challenge presented by the evolving needs of the modern work place in the industries and the ever growing non formal sector. Education and training systems that responds adequately to these demands will therefore, contribute to the efforts to overcome the growing unemployment and marginalization of majority of the population. Providing access to appropriate learning experiences, designed to broaden skills and knowledge can increase productivity and significantly improve the fortunes of the unemployed, thereby reducing poverty and unemployment amongst the youth (Adesoji, 2008).
It is as a result of the recognition given to Chemistry in the development of the individual and the nation that it has been made a core pre-requisite subject for offering most science oriented courses in the tertiary institutions and this calls for the need in teaching it effectively.
It is worth mentioning that the development of the students’ positive attitude is necessary because attitude is linked with academic achievement (Cheung, 2009). Similarly, a study conducted by Kelly (1998) concluded that the British students’ liking for a specific science subject were the actual predictor of their choice in school in various subjects like Physics, Biology and Chemistry. Therefore, all stakeholders should consider the development of positive attitude towards the chemistry subject as one of their central responsibilities (Cheung, 2009). In Nigeria, the students’ performance in chemistry and biology has persistently remained below average. This has been attributed partly to the negative attitudes adopted by the students towards the chemistry. This further underscores the importance of promoting positive attitudes towards Chemistry.
To this effect, a lot of project and would be solutions have been proffered to provide a panacea to this chronic problem all to no avail. It therefore became imperative to identify what factors is culpable for this undesirable situation. In line with this a lot of factors have been identified ranging from poorly trained teachers, poor learning environment and poor students attitude to learning. Other factors are family based. For example what kind of family does a given student come from? What type of parents does a given student have? What is the condition in the home? What is the family size. Is it possible that the size of a given family can affect the academic performance of the children in school specifically in biology and chemistry?
Another factor which may have had its toll on students’ performance especially in biology and motivation and self-advocacy in learning. Motivation and self-advocacy in learning. Chemistry is the level of confidence of students. Studies show a link between the self-efficacy possessed by any given student and the level of tenacity and doggedness he employs in tackling tasks.
“If student have a high self-efficacy, They are more likely to view a stem
Degree as a challenge to transcend Rather than a threat to escape.”
Students will pursue a course of action if they feel confident of being rewarded with success. A student who has been successful in a previous biology or chemistry test is more likely to have a positive disposition to a new challenge as opposed to a student low in self-efficacy. A sound level of self-efficacy often translates to what is called self-regulated learning. Self-regulated learning refers to students knowing how they are doing in a class and advocating for themselves. Pintrich (1999) found a strong relationship between motivation and self-advocacy in learning.
For the purpose of this exercise family size refers to the total number of children in the child’s family including the child himself. Research has shown that in large families, the first born are usually the beneficiary of a better level of attention (Beeker 1980). Subsequent births receive less and less attention and consequently perform notably less in school (Leana 1982) asserts that a relationship exists between birth order and creativity. Spear (1982) in his study shows that the quality of intelligence of children was largly related to family size. For example Okoye and Okeke (2007) in their study found out that in 2002, 2003 and 2004 the percentages of candidates who passed the west African school certificate examination (WASCE) of credit level and above (grade 1-6) in biology were 30.3%,42.1% and 30.2% respectively. Similarly Egbunonu and Ugbaja reported that only 30.29% of the biology students who sat for the WAEC between 2000 and 2005 passed at credit level and above (A1 – C6). In 2008 WAEC chief examiner reported a deadline in performance in biology especially in the theoretical aspect (WAEC, 2008). Furthermore, the Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) in March 17th 2010 reported that the National Examination Council (NECO) recorded 74% failure in biology in their Nov/Dec .2009 SSCE examination results.
Another word for self-efficacy is confidence, self-confidence plays a huge part in the performance of students. Self-efficacy is when an individual thinks they are capable of performing tasks necessary to achieve their goals. A survey once carried out asserts that there are students who even avoid the sciences due to lack of self-efficacy. The perception of one’s ability which is another term for efficacy can also be formed from the cradle of socialization (the family). It is the goal of this work to link self-efficacy and family size to students’ performance in biology and chemistry.
Three common theoretical threads are apparent in the literature regarding family structure: social cognitive theory, attachment theory, and the theory of moral absolutism. Each of these theoretical frameworks provides conceptual underpinnings for the literature on family structure. A closer look at each theory provides greater understanding of the subsequent literature.
Social Cognitive Theory
The research on family structure is grounded in Bandura’s (2002) social cognitive theory because the theory contends that human development is influenced, in part, by environmental agents. Family structure is an environmental agent that impacts human development and therefore student achievement. According to Santrock (1997), social cognitive theory is “the view of psychologists who emphasize behavior, environment, and cognition as the key factors in development” (p. 44). Family structure is an environmental factor that affects the development of students and, in turn, impacts student achievement.
Attachment Theory
Attachment theory was first conceptualized by John Bowlby and later refined by Mary Ainsworth (Bretherton, 1992). The theory contends that a strong emotional bond with at least one primary caregiver is crucial for healthy child development. Attention is given in much of the literature to the child’s mother as the primary caregiver (Cavanagh & Huston, 2008). Attachment theory offers insights into the depressed academic achievement of students from some subgroups of non-traditional families. Further, it is consistent with Pong’s (1998) platform that students from single-parent households in which the mother is present can still experience competitive academic achievement levels.
Theory of Moral Absolutism
The final framework for this literature review is the theory of moral absolutism. This theory maintains that there are morally correct and incorrect actions (Hawley, 2008). Moral absolutism suggests that the morally correct way to raise a child is through a traditional family structure that is comprised by two biological parents (or adoptive parents from birth), one male and one female, cohabitating in a marital relationship.
Moral absolutism coincides with the Biblical ideal of family and extends attachment theory to suggest that two parents are better than one. This theory also offers insights into the academic achievement of students based on family structure.
Interaction of Theories within the Framework
The three theoretical frameworks discussed previously interact to inform the causal-comparative study of the effects of family structure on student achievement. The three theories are closely related and, together, they serve as the foundation for the association between family structure and student achievement. It is the interaction of the three conceptual frameworks that serves as the cornerstone for understanding child development and academic achievement as they relate to family structure.
Though school environment factors certainly influence student achievement, Firestone and Riehl (2005) suggested that individual student characteristics have the “strongest effects” (p. 15) on student achievement. Individual student characteristics include family structure and composition.